Title: Bayesian Marginal Effects for 'brms' Models
Version: 0.2.0
URL: https://joshuawiley.com/brmsmargins/, https://github.com/JWiley/brmsmargins
BugReports: https://github.com/JWiley/brmsmargins/issues
Description: Calculate Bayesian marginal effects, average marginal effects, and marginal coefficients (also called population averaged coefficients) for models fit using the 'brms' package including fixed effects, mixed effects, and location scale models. These are based on marginal predictions that integrate out random effects if necessary (see for example <doi:10.1186/s12874-015-0046-6> and <doi:10.1111/biom.12707>).
License: GPL (≥ 3)
Encoding: UTF-8
RoxygenNote: 7.2.0
Depends: R (≥ 4.0.0)
Imports: methods, stats, data.table (≥ 1.12.0), extraoperators (≥ 0.1.1), brms, bayestestR, Rcpp, posterior
Suggests: testthat (≥ 3.0.0), covr, withr, knitr, rmarkdown, margins, betareg
Config/testthat/edition: 3
Config/testthat/parallel: true
LinkingTo: RcppArmadillo, Rcpp
VignetteBuilder: knitr
NeedsCompilation: yes
Packaged: 2022-05-18 19:46:16 UTC; jwile
Author: Joshua F. Wiley ORCID iD [aut, cre], Donald Hedeker ORCID iD [aut]
Maintainer: Joshua F. Wiley <jwiley.psych@gmail.com>
Repository: CRAN
Date/Publication: 2022-05-18 22:10:03 UTC

Average Over Posterior Predictions

Description

Internal function that averages over posterior predictions using either rowMeans() or rowBootMeans(), the latter being useful to incorporate uncertainty from the inputs being used to generate predictions.

Usage

.averagePosterior(posterior, resample = 0L, seed = FALSE)

Arguments

posterior

A posterior matrix type object. It is assumed that different predictions to be averaged over are on different columns. Different posterior draws are on different rows.

resample

An integer indicating the number of bootstrap resamples of the posterior predictions to use when calculating summaries. Defaults to 0L. See the details section for more informations as its implementation is experimental and it may not operate as one would expect.

seed

A seed for random number generation. Defaults to FALSE, which means no seed is set. Only used if resample is a positive, non-zero integer.

Value

A vector of the averaged posterior.

Check Object Class is a Table

Description

Internal utility function confirm that an object has the attributes needed to be used as data. Currently it should be a tbl, data.frame, or data.table.

Usage

.checktab(x, requireNames = TRUE)

Arguments

x

An object to be evaluated.

requireNames

A logical, whether names are required. Defaults to TRUE

Value

An empty string if no issues. Otherwise, a non zero string with warning/error messages.

Description

Internal utility function to take a brmsfit object and extract the link for a specific dpar.

Usage

.extractlink(object, dpar)

Arguments

object

A brmsfit class model object.

dpar

The dpar for which the link should be extracted.

Value

A character string, the link.

Description

Internal utility function used in prediction(). Takes a link function name as a character string, the type of effect to be used, and the desired back transformation and returns a list with all the options needed to execute the desired options in prediction().

Usage

.links(
  link,
  effects = c("fixedonly", "includeRE", "integrateoutRE"),
  backtrans = c("response", "linear", "identity", "invlogit", "exp", "square",
    "inverse")
)

Arguments

link

The link named in a brmsfit object

effects

A character string, the type of effect desired

backtrans

A character string, the type of back transformation

Value

A list with eight elements.

scale

A character string giving the argument to be passed to fitted().

ilink

A character string giving the name of the inverse link function.

ifun

Inverse link function as an R function.

ilinknum

An integer giving the inverse link / transformation to be applied in integratere(), needed as this is a C++ function and cannot use the R based inverse link function.

Calculate Percent of Observations Within or Without a Window

Description

This is an internal helper function to calculate and label the percentage of a posterior distribution that falls within the Region of Practical Equivalence (ROPE) or at or beyond a Minimally Important Difference (MID). It is designed to fail gracefully if no window given, and to give some useful labels about the windows / range used. Intended for use internally as part of brmsmargins.

Usage

.percent(x, window = NULL, within = TRUE)

Arguments

x

A vector of values to evaluate. Required.

window

An optional numeric vector giving a window.

within

A logical value indicating whether to calculate the percentage within the window (if TRUE) or the percentage at or outside the window (if FALSE). Defaults to TRUE.

Value

A list with the Window, if specified else NULL, the Percent of observations, and a Label specifying the exact window used in human readable format.

Check Assertions about a brmsfit Model Object

Description

These are a set of internal utility functions. They are not intended for general use. Instead, they are intended to be called in circumstances where the expected result is TRUE. All of them are designed to try to give informative error messages if the assertion is not met. All of them result in a stop() error if the assertion is not met.

Usage

.assertbrmsfit(object)

.assertgaussian(object)

.assertfamily(object)

.assertdpar(object, dpar)

.assertlink(object, dpar)

Arguments

object

A brmsfit model object to be evaluated.

dpar

Required for .assertdpar which checks this is valid. Optional for .assertlink which will use NULL if not specified. If specified, this should be NULL or a character string.

Details

Value

An invisible, logical TRUE if the assertion is met. An (informative) error message if the assertion is not met.

Calculate Marginal Effects from 'brms' Models

Description

This function is designed to help calculate marginal effects including average marginal effects (AMEs) from brms models. Arguments are labeled as required when it is required that the user directly specify the argument. Arguments are labeled as optional when either the argument is optional or there are sensible default values so that users do not typically need to specify the argument.

Usage

brmsmargins(
  object,
  at = NULL,
  wat = NULL,
  add = NULL,
  newdata = model.frame(object),
  CI = 0.99,
  CIType = "HDI",
  contrasts = NULL,
  ROPE = NULL,
  MID = NULL,
  subset = NULL,
  dpar = NULL,
  seed,
  verbose = FALSE,
  ...
)

Arguments

object

A required argument specifying a fitted brms model object.

at

An optional argument (but note, either at or add are required) specifying an object inheriting from data frame indicating the values to hold specific variables at when calculating average predictions. This is intended for AMEs from categorical variables.

wat

An optional list with named elements including one element named, “ID” with a single character string, the name of the variable in the model frame that is the ID variable. Additionally, there should be one or more named elements, named after variables in the model (and specified in the at argument), that contain a data.table or data.frame with three variables: (1) the ID variable giving IDs, (2) the values specified for the variable in the at argument, and (3) the actual values to be substituted for each ID. wat cannot be non null unless at also is non null.

add

An optional argument (but note, either at or add are required) specifying an object inheriting from data frame indicating the values to add to specific variables at when calculating average predictions. This is intended for AMEs for continuous variables.

newdata

An optional argument specifying an object inheriting from data frame indicating the baseline values to use for predictions and AMEs. It uses a sensible default: the model frame from the brms model object passed on the object argument.

CI

An optional argument with a numeric value specifying the width of the credible interval. Defaults to 0.99. This default is arbitrary, but is purposefully higher than the common 0.95 to encourage science with greater acknowledgment of uncertainty or larger sample sizes (ideally).

CIType

An optional argument, a character string specifying the type of credible interval (e.g., highest density interval). It is passed down to bsummary which in turn passes it to ci. Defaults to “HDI”.

contrasts

An optional argument specifying a contrast matrix. The posterior predictions matrix is post multiplied by the contrast matrix, so they must be conformable. The posterior predictions matrix has a separate column for each row in the at or add object, so the contrast matrix should have the same number of rows. It can have multiple columns, if you desire multiple specific contrasts.

ROPE

An optional argument, that can either be left as NULL, the default, or a numeric vector of length 2, specifying the lower and upper thresholds for the Region of Practical Equivalence (ROPE).

MID

An optional argument, that can either left as NULL, the default, or a numeric vector of length 2, specifying the lower and upper thresholds for a Minimally Important Difference (MID). Unlike the ROPE, percentages for the MID are calculated as at or exceeding the bounds specified by this argument, whereas the ROPE is the percentage of the posterior at or inside the bounds specified.

subset

An optional argument, a character string that is a valid R expression used to subset the dataset passed in newdata, prior to analysis. Defaults to NULL.

dpar

An optional argument giving the parameter passed on to the dpar argument of fitted() in brms. Defaults to NULL, indicating the mean or location parameter typically.

seed

An optional argument that controls whether (and if so what) random seed to use. This does not matter when using fixed effects only. However, when using Monte Carlo integration to integrate out random effects from mixed effects models, it is critical if you are looking at a continuous marginal effect with some small offset value as otherwise the Monte Carlo error from one set of predictions to another may exceed the true predicted difference. If seed is left missing, the default, than a single, random integer between +\- 1e7 is chosen and used to set the seed before each prediction. If manually chosen (recommended for reproducibility), the seed should either be a single value, in which case this single value is used to set the seed before each prediction. Alternately, it can be a vector of seeds with either the same length as the number of rows in at or add, whichever was specified. This is probably generally not what you want, as it means that even for the same input data, you would get slightly different predictions (when integrating out random effects) due to Monte Carlo variation. Finally, rather than being missing, you can explicitly set seed = NULL, if you do not want any seed to be set. This would be fine, for instance, when only using fixed effects, or if you know what you are doing and intend that behavior when integrating out random effects.

verbose

An optional argument, a logical value whether to print more verbose messages. Defaults to FALSE which is quieter. Set to TRUE for more messages to be printed where relevant.

...

An optional argument, additional arguments passed on to prediction. In particular, the effects argument of prediction() is important for mixed effects models to control how random effects are treated in the predictions, which subsequently changes the marginal effect estimates.

Details

The main parts required for the function are a fitted model object, (via the object argument) a dataset to be used for prediction, (via the newdata argument which defaults to the model frame), and a dataset passed to either at or add. The steps are as follows:

  1. Check that the function inputs (model object, data, etc.) are valid.

  2. Take the dataset from the newdata argument and either add the values from the first row of add or replace the values using the first row of at. Only variables specified in at or add are modified. Other variables are left as is.

  3. Use the fitted() function to generate predictions based on this modified dataset. If effects is set to “fixedonly” (meaning only generate predictions using fixed effects) or to “includeRE” (meaning generate predictions using fixed and random effects), then predictions are generated entirely using the fitted() function and are, typically back transformed to the response scale. For mixed effects models with fixed and random effects where effects is set to “integrateoutRE”, then fitted() is only used to generate predictions using the fixed effects on the linear scale. For each prediction generated, the random effects are integrated out by drawing k random samples from the model assumed random effect(s) distribution. These are added to the fixed effects predictions, back transformed, and then averaged over all k random samples to perform numerical Monte Carlo integration.

  4. All the predictions for each posterior draw, after any back transformation has been applied, are averaged, resulting in one, marginal value for each posterior draw. These are marginal predictions. They are average marginal predictions if averaging over the sample dataset, or may be marginal predictions at the means, if the initial input dataset used mean values, etc.

  5. Steps two to four are repeated for each row of at or add. Results are combined into a matrix where the columns are different rows from at or add and the rows are different posterior draws.

  6. If contrasts were specified, using a contrast matrix, the marginal prediction matrix is post multiplied by the contrast matrix. Depending on the choice(s) of add or at and the values in the contrast matrix, these can then be average marginal effects (AMEs) by using numerical integration (add with 0 and a very close to 0 value) or discrete difference (at with say 0 and 1 as values) for a given predictor(s).

  7. The marginal predictions and the contrasts, if specified are summarized.

Although brmsmargins() is focused on helping to calculate marginal effects, it can also be used to generate marginal predictions, and indeed these marginal predictions are the foundation of any marginal effect estimates. Through manipulating the input data, at or add and the contrast matrix, other types of estimates averaged or weighting results in specific ways are also possible.

Value

A list with four elements.

References

Pavlou, M., Ambler, G., Seaman, S., & Omar, R. Z. (2015) doi:10.1186/s12874-015-0046-6 “A note on obtaining correct marginal predictions from a random intercepts model for binary outcomes” and Skrondal, A., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2009) doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2009.00587.x “Prediction in multilevel generalized linear models” and Norton EC, Dowd BE, Maciejewski ML. (2019) doi:10.1001/jama.2019.1954 “Marginal Effects—Quantifying the Effect of Changes in Risk Factors in Logistic Regression Models”

Examples

## Not run: 
#### Testing ####
## sample data and logistic model with brms
set.seed(1234)
Tx <- rep(0:1, each = 50)
ybin <- c(rep(0:1, c(40,10)), rep(0:1, c(10,40)))
logitd <- data.frame(Tx = Tx, ybin = ybin)
logitd$x <- rnorm(100, mean = logitd$ybin, sd = 2)

mbin <- brms::brm(ybin ~ Tx + x, data = logitd, family = brms::bernoulli())

summary(mbin)

## now check AME for Tx
tmp <- brmsmargins(
  object = mbin,
  at = data.table::data.table(Tx = 0:1),
  contrasts = matrix(c(-1, 1), nrow = 2),
  ROPE = c(-.05, +.05),
  MID = c(-.10, +.10))

tmp$Summary
tmp$ContrastSummary ## Tx AME


## now check AME for Tx with bootstrapping the AME population
tmpalt <- brmsmargins(
  object = mbin,
  at = data.table::data.table(Tx = 0:1),
  contrasts = matrix(c(-1, 1), nrow = 2),
  ROPE = c(-.05, +.05),
  MID = c(-.10, +.10),
  resample = 100L)

tmpalt$Summary
tmpalt$ContrastSummary ## Tx AME

## now check AME for continuous predictor, x
## use .01 as an approximation for first derivative
## 1 / .01 in the contrast matrix to get back to a one unit change metric
tmp2 <- brmsmargins(
  object = mbin,
  add = data.table::data.table(x = c(0, .01)),
  contrasts = matrix(c(-1/.01, 1/.01), nrow = 2),
  ROPE = c(-.05, +.05),
  MID = c(-.10, +.10))

tmp2$ContrastSummary ## x AME

if (FALSE) {
  library(lme4)
  data(sleepstudy)
  fit <- brms::brm(Reaction ~ 1 + Days + (1 + Days | Subject),
             data = sleepstudy,
             cores = 4)

  summary(fit, prob = 0.99)

  tmp <- brmsmargins(
    object = fit,
    at = data.table::data.table(Days = 0:1),
    contrasts = matrix(c(-1, 1), nrow = 2),
    ROPE = c(-.05, +.05),
    MID = c(-.10, +.10), CIType = "ETI", effects = "integrateoutRE", k = 5L)

  tmp$Summary
  tmp$ContrastSummary
  }

## End(Not run)

Personal Preference Based Bayesian Summary

Description

Returns a summary of a posterior distribution for a single parameter / value. It is based on personal preference. Notably, it does not only use bayestestR::describe_posterior, an excellent function, because of the desire to also describe the percentage of the full posterior distribution that is at or exceeding the value of a Minimally Important Difference (MID). MIDs are used in clinical studies with outcome measures where there are pre-defined differences that are considered clinically important, which is distinct from the ROPE or general credible intervals capturing uncertainty.

Usage

bsummary(x, CI = 0.99, CIType = "HDI", ROPE = NULL, MID = NULL)

Arguments

x

The posterior distribution of a parameter

CI

A numeric value indicating the desired width of the credible interval. Defaults to 0.99 currently, but this is subject to change. a 99% interval was chosen as the default as there have been recent arguments made in the realm of meta science that there are, essentially, too many false positives and that many of the “findings” in science are not able to be replicated. In any case, users should ideally specify a desired CI width, and not rely on defaults.

CIType

A character string indicating the type of credible interval, passed on to the ci function as the method for CIs.

ROPE

Either left as NULL, the default, or a numeric vector of length 2, specifying the lower and upper thresholds for the Region of Practical Equivalence (ROPE).

MID

Either left as NULL, the default, or a numeric vector of length 2, specifying the lower and upper thresholds for a Minimally Important Difference (MID). Unlike the ROPE, percentages for the MID are calculated as at or exceeding the bounds specified by this argument, whereas the ROPE is the percentage of the posterior at or inside the bounds specified.

Value

A data.table with the mean, M

M

the mean of the posterior samples

Mdn

the median of the posterior samples

LL

the lower limit of the credible interval

UL

the upper limit of the credible interval

PercentROPE

the percentage of posterior samples falling into the ROPE

PercentMID

the percentage of posterior samples falling at or beyond the MID

CI

the width of the credible interval used

CIType

the type of credible interval used (e.g., highest density interval)

ROPE

a label describing the values included in the ROPE

MID

a label describing the values included in the MID

References

Kruschke, J. K. (2018). doi:10.1177/2515245918771304 “Rejecting or accepting parameter values in Bayesian estimation”

Examples


bsummary(rnorm(1000))

bsummary(rnorm(1000), ROPE = c(-.5, .5), MID = c(-1, 1))

Build the Variable Names or Data Objects for Estimation

Description

These are a set of internal utility functions. They are not intended for general use.

Usage

.namesL(block, number)

.buildL(data, block, number, dpar)

.namesSD(ranef, block, dpar)

.buildSD(data, ranef, block, dpar)

.namesZ(block, number, dpar)

.buildZ(data, block, number, dpar)

Arguments

block

Which random effect block to use. An integer.

number

The number of elements in that random effect block. An integer.

data

A data object. For example the result of make_standata() for .buildZ(), which is a list, or a dataset of the posterior draws such as from as_draws_df() for .buildL() and .buildSD().

dpar

Which dpar to use. Does not apply to the L matrix.

ranef

A data set with information about the model object random effects. Only used for .namesSD and .buildSD.

Details

Value

A character vector for all .names functions or a matrix for all .build functions.

Integrate over Multivariate Normal Random Effects

Description

Used in the process of Monte Carlo integration over multivariate normal random effects. This generates the random draws from the multivariate normal distribution and multiplies these by the data. Not intended to be called directly by most users.

Usage

integratemvn(X, k, sd, chol)

integratemvnR(X, k, sd, chol)

Arguments

X

A numeric matrix of the data to be multiplied by the random effects

k

An integer, the number of random samples to be used for numerical integration

sd

A numeric vector of the standard deviations

chol

A numeric matrix, which should be the Cholesky decomposition of the correlation matrix of the multivariate normal distribution.

Value

A numeric matrix with random values

Functions

Examples

integratemvn(
  X = matrix(1, 1, 2),
  k = 100L,
  sd = c(10, 5),
  chol = chol(matrix(c(1, .5, .5, 1), 2)))

integratemvn(matrix(1, 1, 1), 100L, c(5), matrix(1))

Integrate over Random Effects

Description

Used to conduct Monte Carlo integration over Gaussian random effects. Not intended to be called directly by most users.

Usage

integratere(d, sd, L, k, yhat, backtrans)

integratereR(d, sd, L, k, yhat, backtrans)

Arguments

d

A list with model matrices for each random effect block.

sd

A list with standard deviation matrices for each random effect block where rows are different posterior draws.

L

A list with matrices for each random effect block containing the parts of the L matrix, the Cholesky decomposition of the random effect correlation matrix.

k

An integer, the number of samples for Monte Carlo integration.

yhat

A matrix of the fixed effects predictions

backtrans

An integer, indicating the type of back transformation. 0 indicates inverse logit (e.g., for logistic regression). 1 indicates exponential (e.g., for poisson or negative binomial regression or if outcome was natural log transformed). 2 indicates square (e.g., if outcome was square root transformed). 3 indicates inverse (e.g., if outcome was inverse transformed such as Gamma regression) Any other integer results in no transformation. -9 is recommended as the option for no transformation as any future transformations supported will be other, positive integers.

Value

A numeric matrix with the Monte Carlo integral calculated.

Functions

Examples

integratere(
  d = list(matrix(1, 1, 1)),
  sd = list(matrix(1, 2, 1)),
  L = list(matrix(1, 2, 1)),
  k = 10L,
  yhat = matrix(0, 2, 1),
  backtrans = 0L)

Check a brmsfit Object has Random Effects

Description

Internal utility function to check whether a brmsfit object has any random effects or not.

Usage

is.random(object)

Arguments

object

An object to be evaluated.

Value

TRUE if any random effects present. FALSE if no random effects present.

Fast Linear Regression

Description

Used to get marginal coefficients off of a generalized linear mixed model.

Usage

lmcpp(X, y)

Arguments

X

A numeric model matrix. If intercept is desired, it must already have been added as a column.

y

A numeric matrix. A single column if one response variable or multiple columns where each column is a different response, such as a for marginal coefficients where each column is a different MCMC sample.

Value

A numeric matrix with the coefficient.

Examples

lmcpp(cbind(1, mtcars$hp, mtcars$am), as.matrix(mtcars[, c("mpg", "qsec")]))

Marginal Coefficients from a 'brms' Model

Description

Calculate marginal coefficients from a brms generalized linear mixed model using the method proposed by Hedeker (2018).

Usage

marginalcoef(
  object,
  summarize = TRUE,
  posterior = FALSE,
  index,
  backtrans = c("response", "linear", "identity", "invlogit", "exp", "square",
    "inverse"),
  k = 100L,
  ...
)

Arguments

object

A fitted brms model object that includes random effects. Required.

summarize

A logical value, whether or not to calculate summaries of the posterior predictions. Defaults to TRUE.

posterior

A logical value whether or not to save and return the posterior samples. Defaults to FALSE as the assumption is a typical use case is to return the summaries only.

index

An optional integer vector, giving the posterior draws to be used in the calculations. If omitted, defaults to all posterior draws.

backtrans

A character string indicating the type of back transformation to be applied. Can be one of “response” meaning to use the response scale, “linear” or “identity” meaning to use the linear predictor scale, or a specific back transformation desired, from a possible list of “invlogit”, “exp”, “square”, or “inverse”. Custom back transformations should only be needed if, for example, the outcome variable was transformed prior to fitting the model.

k

An integer providing the number of random draws to use for integrating out the random effects. Only relevant when effects is “integrateoutRE”.

...

Additional arguments passed to fitted()

Value

A list with Summary and Posterior. Some of these may be NULL depending on the arguments used.

References

Hedeker, D., du Toit, S. H., Demirtas, H. & Gibbons, R. D. (2018) doi:10.1111/biom.12707 “A note on marginalization of regression parameters from mixed models of binary outcomes”

Marginal Posterior Predictions from a 'brms' Model

Description

Calculate marginal predictions from a brms model. Marginal predictions average over the input data for each posterior draw. Marginal predictions for models with random effects will integrate over random effects. Arguments are labeled as required when it is required that the user directly specify the argument. Arguments are labeled as optional when either the argument is optional or there are sensible default values so that users do not typically need to specify the argument.

Usage

prediction(
  object,
  data,
  summarize = TRUE,
  posterior = FALSE,
  index,
  dpar = NULL,
  resample = 0L,
  resampleseed = FALSE,
  effects = c("fixedonly", "includeRE", "integrateoutRE"),
  backtrans = c("response", "linear", "identity", "invlogit", "exp", "square",
    "inverse"),
  k = 100L,
  raw = FALSE,
  ...
)

Arguments

object

A required argument specifying a fitted brms model object.

data

A required argument specifying a data frame or data table passed to fitted() as the new data to be used for predictions.

summarize

An optional argument, a logical value, whether or not to calculate summaries of the posterior predictions. Defaults to TRUE.

posterior

An optional argument, a logical value whether or not to save and return the posterior samples. Defaults to FALSE as the assumption is a typical use case is to return the summaries only.

index

An optional argument, an integer vector, giving the posterior draws to be used in the calculations. If omitted, defaults to all posterior draws.

dpar

An optional argument, the parameter passed on to the dpar argument of fitted() in brms. Defaults to NULL indicating the mean or location parameter typically.

resample

An optional argument, an integer indicating the number of bootstrap resamples of the posterior predictions to use when calculating summaries. Defaults to 0L. See documentation from .averagePosterior() for more details. This should be considered experimental.

resampleseed

An optional argument, a seed for random number generation. Defaults to FALSE, which means no seed is set. Only used if resample is a positive, non-zero integer. See documentation from .averagePosterior() for more details. This should be considered experimental.

effects

An optional argument, a character string indicating the type of prediction to be made. Can be one of “fixedonly” meaning only use fixed effects, “includeRE” meaning that random effects should be included in the predictions, or “integrateoutRE” meaning that random effects should be integrated out / over in the predictions. It defaults to “fixedonly” so is not typically required for a user to specify it.

backtrans

An optional argument, a character string indicating the type of back transformation to be applied. Can be one of “response” meaning to use the response scale, “linear” or “identity” meaning to use the linear predictor scale, or a specific back transformation desired, from a possible list of “invlogit”, “exp”, “square”, or “inverse”. Custom back transformations should only be needed if, for example, the outcome variable was transformed prior to fitting the model. It defaults to “response” so is not typically required for a user to specify it.

k

An optional argument, an integer providing the number of random draws to use for integrating out the random effects. Only relevant when effects is “integrateoutRE”. It defaults to 100L, a rather arbitrary number attempting to balance the increased precision that comes from a larger value, with the increased computational cost of more Monte Carlo simulations when integrating out random effects.

raw

An optional argument, a logical value indicating whether to return the raw output or to average over the Monte Carlo samples. Defaults to FALSE. Setting it to TRUE can be useful if you want not only the full posterior distribution but also the k Monte Carlo samples used for the numerical integration. This cannot be used with summarize = TRUE.

...

An optional argument, additional arguments passed to fitted().

Value

A list with Summary and Posterior. Some of these may be NULL depending on the arguments used.

References

Pavlou, M., Ambler, G., Seaman, S., & Omar, R. Z. (2015) doi:10.1186/s12874-015-0046-6 “A note on obtaining correct marginal predictions from a random intercepts model for binary outcomes” and Skrondal, A., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2009) doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2009.00587.x “Prediction in multilevel generalized linear models”

Bootstrap Row Means

Description

This takes a numeric matrix, bootstrap resamples each row, and then calculates the mean. The intended use case is for Bayesian posterior predictions from sample data. Instead of directly calculating the average marginal effect (AME) across all observed values, these can be bootstrapped, so that uncertainty in the target population, and thus the AME in the target population, can be incorporated. Model uncertainty is already assumed to be handled by the different posterior samples, which are assumed to be across rows.

Usage

rowBootMeans(x)

Arguments

x

A numeric matrix

Value

A numeric vector with the simple bootstrapped row means of the matrix

Examples


x <- matrix(1:9, byrow = TRUE, 3)
replicate(10, rowBootMeans(x))

Convert a Row of a Table to a Square Matrix

Description

Utility function to convert a row matrix to a square matrix. Used as the brms package returns things like the Cholesky decomposition matrix as separate columns where rows are posterior draws. Not intended to be called directly by most users.

Usage

tab2mat(X)

tab2matR(X)

Arguments

X

a matrix

Value

A numeric matrix with one row.

Functions

Examples

tab2mat(matrix(1:4, 1))
tab2mat(matrix(1:9, 1))